Wisdom: Question and H. Norman Wright

Wisdom Khaled Sabri Instructor Curtis Jones Christian Excellence March 18, 2013 Wisdom Wisdom is the practical translation and application of the word of God to everyday life. It is an integration of knowledge, experience, and deep understanding that incorporates tolerance for the uncertainties of life as well as its ups and downs. There's an awareness of how things play out over time, and it confers a sense of balance. There are four components to wisdom: (1) Words from the wise, (2) Asking wisely, (3) being a person of understanding and (4) showing a little kindness. Beginning with words from the wise; H.Norman Wright states in his book â€Å"How to get Along with Almost Anyone† that; â€Å"The words you use connect you to other people. But how are you connected: by a cord that binds you together or a barrier which keeps you at a distance? † Wright provides us with an example of real life describing the experience at the Department of Motor Vehicles: â€Å"Youâ€℠¢ll have to get in the other line. Didn’t you read the instructions? Or You’ll have to come back Monday Morning. When we use the word you as a part of an order or command, we usually end up punching someone’s resistance button†. Asking wisely connects with the words we use. H.Norman Wright states in his book â€Å"How to get Along with Almost Anyone† that; â€Å"Questions are an important part of human interaction. Some people use questions to deepen and enrich their relationships. But many people use questions to pry, maneuver, gain advantage, attack, trap, setup, or break down the defenses of the others. † We need to ask questions open ended as opposed to closed. A good example is â€Å"How do you like the restaurant? † as opposed to â€Å"Isn’t this restaurant awful? † One allows the other person to state their own thoughts and perspective while the other closes the other person out and just shows your own viewpoint.Th e third component is that we need to be a person of understanding. We need to understand where the other person is coming from and be able to put the attention on them and not just on ourselves. H. Norman Wright states in his book â€Å"How to get Along with Almost Anyone† that; â€Å"The major characteristic of a person of understanding is revealed in Proverbs 14:29: He who is slow to anger has great understanding, but he who is hasty of spirit exposes and exalts his folly†. The Fourth component is that we also need to show a little kindness . We all know what it feels like to be taken for granted.H. Norman Wright states; â€Å"Do you know what it feels to be taken for granted? you continue to give of yourself over a period of time and yet there is no response to, or recognition for, your efforts. Even we should be able to give freely and lovingly without expecting anything in return, most people respond well when their efforts are acknowledged†(Wright, H. N. , 1989) A little kindness can take you a long way in our path to getting along with others. These four components of wisdom are all steps in better ways to get along with others.By better understanding each other, and by possessing wisdom, you will be able to have better relationships with the people around you. The component that I feel is most applicable to me is asking wisely. A lot people have problems with this issue and it makes hard to respond to their words. By giving me your opinion other than asking me a simple question sometimes makes me feels oblige to answer the question the same way you want, thus depriving me from the right to say my honest opinion. Let’s go back to the example provided earlier, if you said: â€Å"Isn’t this restaurant awful? I feel I have no place to state my opinion or tell you exactly how I feel. In summary, understanding that true wisdom is understanding and following the Word of God can take you a long was in getting along with othe rs. It is a two part system; translation and application. It is important to understand the Word of God; and it is equally important to apply it to our daily lives. References H. Norman Wright (1989). How To Get Along With Almost Anyone. Nashville, Tennessee: Royal Publishers Inc. Sackett Christopher (January, 22, 2013). Wisdom. Examiner. com retrieved march 17th, 2013 from http://www. examiner. com/article/wisdom-3

Importance of Computer Essay

Computer is an electronic device used in almost every field even where it is most unexpected. That is why this age is called as the era of IT. And now we cannot imagine a world without computers. It is made up of two things one is the hardware and other is software. All physical components of computer like keyboard, mouse, monitor etc comes under the hardware whereas all the programs and languages used by the computer are called software. These days computers are the tools for not only engineers and scientists but also they are being used by millions of people around the world. Computers have become an integral part of our lives. Be it the desktop computers or laptop computers, both have various advantages in our daily life. The landscape of global communication has changed since computers have been introduced in our society. Importance of computers can be attributed to the fact that almost every sphere of our life is affected by computers. Information technology (IT) is a whole new industry that has developed after the introduction of computers. Presenting before you is an article with an abridged summary of importance in computers in various fields. Importance of Using Computer Among several advantages of computers, access to the Internet is hailed to be an advantage that has shaped the way we communicate. Importance of information technology has been such that besides creating millions of IT jobs, it has become an integral part of every other industry. Features and operations of IT are indirectly required in every other sector. Role of Computers in Education Right from elementary school students to PhD researchers, every educational system has been influenced by computers. Some of the uses of computers in education are as follows: †¢Students can be better prepared for the future technologies and it’s easier to explain them several topics that are hard to be understood without 3-D images. †¢Online education has made learning easier and convenient for a large section of population. †¢Easy access to encyclopedia on the Internet certainly makes us ponder over textbooks versus computer teaching. Online encyclopedia have made researching and preparing documents simpler. †¢Students aware of computer uses have better chances of job opportunities as computers literacy is a need now. Importance of  computer education was never so important as it is in the present scenario. †¢Using computer aided facilities like PowerPoint presentation eases understanding of complex topics. BANKS Almost every bank is using computers to keep the record of all the money transaction and other calculations. Moreover it provides speed, convenience and security. COMMUNICATION Communication is another important aspect of computer and has become very easy through internet and email. Computer communicates using telephone lines and modems. Through email we can send messages to anybody in any part of the world in just a second while if we write letter then it will reach in some days. So the internet has made the earth a global village and above all saves time. This would not be possible without computers. Internet helps to find information on every topic. It is the easiest and fastest way of research. Computer network makes the user capable of accessing remote programs and databases of same or different organizations. MEDIA Almost every type of editing and audio- visual compositions can be made by using special software especially made for this purpose. Some software can even make three dimensional figures which are mostly used in the cartoon films. Special effects for action and science fiction movies are also created on computer. TRAVEL AND TICKETING Computers do all the work of plane and train reservation. It shows the data for vacant and reserved seats and also saves the record for reservation. WEATHER PREDICTIONS Weather predictions are also possible by the experts using supercomputers. SPORTS It is also used for umpiring decisions. Many times the umpire has to go for the decision of third umpire in which the recording is seen again on the computer and finally reaches to the accurate and fair decision. Simulation software allows the sportsman to practice and improve his skills. DAILY LIFE We operate washing machines, microwave oven and many other products using software. Moreover we can store all the information about our important  work, appointments schedules and list of contacts. Crucial Role of Computers in Medicine The health care field has gone through a revolution after computers have been introduced in our society. Uses of computer in the medical field has been immense. Computers have been integrated with almost all medical technologies to improve accuracy in results. †¢Big hospitals require computer systems to maintain database of patient records. This has lessened the burden of paper management. †¢Some uses of computers in hospitals include maintaining staff attendance records, medical records recording of incoming and outgoing timings of staff, computerized accounting and managing records of patient and associated doctors. †¢The use of computers in medicine has gained more significance as heartbeat rate, pulse rates all can be checked on special graphs on monitor screen. †¢Internet technology has made it easier to exchange information, news and reports about latest medical development all across the globe. †¢Medical imaging has grown to become an extremely important aspect of medical diagnosis. By using techniques to create body images of even the most complex structures in the body, scientists have made it easier to treat ailments. †¢Web conferencing has made it easier for expert doctors sitting in some distant country to guide and instruct junior surgeons. More so, even while operation, many senior doctors can guide junior doctors. These are some of the amazing uses of computers in hospital set ups. †¢All surgical procedures are recorded in small cameras (some even installed in the medical equipment) so that the process of surgery can be learned better and improved. †¢Nowadays, even computer counseling is possible owing to extensive use of computers. Benefits of Computers in Business The use of computers in business has grown by leaps and bound since the last few decades. Here are some of the benefits of computers in business field. †¢Using Internet technologies, computer networking and several types of software, businesses are able to communicate all across the globe crossing geographical boundaries. †¢Communication has taken a new role among partners, suppliers, consumers and they’re able to keep a track of each other that facilitates the business process. †¢Development of software like  Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software solutions and Management Information Systems (MIS) have made it possible to centralize administrative features of a firm. †¢Project management and other planning activities are easily designed by integrating latest software with computers. This decreases time on planning and figuring out certain complex issues. †¢Seminars, conferences and meetings can be scheduled with bosses and big corporate giants through web conferencing that can be heard by all the employees simultaneously. While the debate on advantages and disadvantages of Internet or computers will always exist, it’s certainly a truth that computers have made our life totally different, progressive and better. So we can say that today computer is playing very important role in our lives. Now is the time when we cannot imagine the world without computers. And this technology is advancing both in industry and home. It has become necessary for everyone to have the basic knowledge about computer. Otherwise he cannot get a job as computers have invaded almost all the fields.

Retail Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Retail Marketing - Essay Example An underground ticket hall connects Kings Cross Underground Station to St Pancras International via the western concourse. Interchange from Kings Cross main line to St Pancras is on street level. The open, bright design, general cleanliness and high-end retail outlets of St Pancras International create a positive sense of arrival for passengers and have resulted in the station acting as a destination in its own right. Movement paths within the interchange facility are largely direct and clear with good sight lines and little clutter. Spatial management is good with mixed use spaces arranged to either side of movement spaces, decision points are relatively clear with minimal advertising or other distractions. Much of the station environment is step free with lifts, where needed, located on desire lines. A visible staff presence, combined with pedestrian and retail activity promotes a sense of safety and security. St Pancras International has a wide range of eateries available from fine dining in the St Pancras Grand to top notch nosh in traditional London gastro pub and fresh food on the go in many casual dining restaurants. St Pancras grant: The restaurant, created by Martin Brudnizki, the celebrated designer is a glamorous setting. There is an elegant Whiskey bar and stylish Oyster Bar which are for coffee meetings, pre-dinner drinks and informal dining. There is a graceful Betjeman room which offers private dining and is also perfect for business meetings.   Mirroring some of the great restaurants and bars from around the world, Head Chef, Chris Dines menus reflect the best of what is truly British, changing regularly in accordance with the seasons and availability of locally sourced produce. The wine list, artfully compiled to complement the food, will please the most discerning customer and has premium wines available by the glass and carafe. The Betjeman Arms is a fantastic gastro pub offering great british

Government-Fostered Ownership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Government-Fostered Ownership - Essay Example The so called concentration of media is a term given to the concentration of ownership rights into the hands of few individuals or entities which control the major chunk of the media including radio. The question of whether the US government allowed the concentration of ownership into the monopoly or oligopoly ownership structure with the radio industry is question of great debate because over the period of time, radio industry has been subject to various regulations. The FCC’s verdicts also indicated that the US government was more than willing to consolidate the ownership of radio industry in few hands apparently for reasons which may not be fully understood. (Compaine, 2005). The radio and other allied industries such as railways as well as TV in US evolved under the private ownership as against in UK and elsewhere. The fact that the radio industry evolved under the private ownership has provided much flexibility as well freedom to operate. It is also important to note that the radio as a private invention and as such the ownership of broadcasting also remained within the hands of the private owners. The policy of the US government has been to allow the flourishing of the radio industry under the private ownership. It is also however, critical to note that the US government has over the period of time regulated the industry in a bid to keep it under the tight control however, the ownership of the industry remained within the private owners, and as such it was also gradually culminated into the monopoly or oligopoly. One of the reasons for this which is often cited is the assumption that the strict government control over the radio may be a barrier to entry and as such the freedom of speech as well as other fundamental rights may be subjugated by the government. Further, the government control might have resulted into the barriers to creativity as strict government control could have resulted into

What constitutes the Neo in Neorealism Is Neorealism an improvement on Essay

What constitutes the Neo in Neorealism Is Neorealism an improvement on traditional realism - Essay Example realism and neorealism in the light of artistic visual products such as paintings, drawings and film highlighting common aspects in philosophy and material use. In defining whether neorealism is an improvement of traditional realism close connection between uses of material, utilization of light and shadow to create realistic perception and conceptualization. Political neutralism has also been discussed highlighting ideological differences with traditional realism. Realism can be traced back to events in the 5th century when it was used reliably to chronicle and predict international relations (Crawford, 2000, p. 10-256). Recent developments such as globalization and economic warfare have made the world more complex redefining issues of interest. Politically there are five core premises of realism and neorealism. The central philosophies address causes of war and condition of peace (Crawford, 2000, p. 10-256). Realism holds that selfish interest in every person is the basis of conflict between nations which are collective platform of individualistic interest with each nation defending its interest. Power is the only negotiating factor in realism (Crawford, 2000, p. 10-256). Neorealism holds that lack of a formal global political system creates anarchic situation where nations feel perpetually threatened by others (Crawford, 2000, p. 10-256). To protect their interest each nation develops its central system that endeavors to protect its existen ce. System structure is necessary explanation depicting international system as a self-help system formed on the basis on security dilemma and powerful incentive for arms-races. Power and security are the central factors in neo-realism (Crawford, 2000, p. 10-256). Central actors are geographical regions defined as states which peruse their interest of autonomy, independence, security, survival, power, relative capabilities and positionality. Realism is based on inductive knowledge from history while neorealism is deductive

Management Skills - CIMA Official Learning System Enterprise Managemen Annotated Bibliography

Management Skills - CIMA Official Learning System Enterprise Management - Annotated Bibliography Example This paper is being carried out in order to establish a comprehensive and academic discussion of leadership and management – how to establish efficacy in these areas based on practical concepts. In the book by Norton and Hughes (2009), the authors discuss different management skills and one of these skills is delegation. Their discussion on delegation points out how a leader or a manager discusses to the members of the team or the organization about the task or the activity which has to be carried out and what each of them has to do in order to contribute to the accomplishment of the task (Norton & Hughes, 2009). In their discussion, the authors were able to point out that the leader is actually not fully capable or competent in carrying out the task which is needed to complete the activity; hence, such tasks are assigned to different people who are more capable (Norton & Hughes, 2009). Delegation is about empowering each member of the team and giving each member a chance to be a leader and a chance to contribute to the bigger goals of the organization or the team. The authors discuss in their book that delegation is about allowing the members of the team to make mistakes à ¢â‚¬â€œ and to correct such mistakes – without the fear of being blamed for such mistakes (Norton & Hughes, 2009). In the above article, the website Mind Tools discusses principles which can be applied by a person in order to ensure successful delegation. The website first emphasizes that it is important to clearly articulate or express the desired outcome to the members of the group. It is therefore important, to begin with, end goals in mind and to specify how results can be gained from the end goals (MindTools, 2010). The constraints and boundaries also have to be identified, including the lines of authority and responsibility for each member of the group. It is also important to empower the members through the delegation process and in letting them decide which tasks can be assigned to them (MindTools, 2010).

Aligning Philosophies of Science with Research Approaches according to Coursework

Aligning Philosophies of Science with Research Approaches according to Creswell - Coursework Example Firstly, Creswell aligns his philosophies with empiricism. This is whereby in research approaches, one deals with complete truths, where explanation of these complete truths can be through quantitative methods (Creswell, 2009). In addition, empiricism application is possible in to qualitative exploration. From the name, quantitative approaches often deal with manipulation of numerical data. Additionally, Creswell uses Interpretism in alignment of the research design. This closely aligns with constructivism. In addition, it seems to align with qualitative research design, where it may also apply in mixed methods approach. It also incorporates personal or subjective value into findings. This further makes inferences and interpretations on data be with ease. For this reason, it tends to examine personal or subjective meanings. In conclusion, Creswell articulately discusses tendencies for specific types of exploration and their relation to methods and approaches in research approaches. Although the lines he uses do not acts as binding limits for research design. They act as guideline that suggests common tendencies for research approaches. Creswell helps people understand the improbabilities on scientists and their inventions as they begin research prior to the commitment of ontology. Naturally, the research designs used by most scientists often contribute to the appropriate research approach.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner - Essay Example Expressionism took many forms including theatre, cinema and art (www.artmovements.co.uk). Other movements including Fauvism, Post- Impressionism and Impressionism heavily influenced the art itself. However Expressionism evolved beyond all those, incorporating many of the elements of each type but also imparting extreme violence and exaggeration of brushstrokes, as well as harsh and intense colour to the canvas in order to convey their personal emotional response to the scene. In 1880 two events took place that led to the rise of Expressionism. The first was the unification of Germany and all its controlled states into a single federation or empire by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk). This resulted in the appointment of Wilhelm II, the King of Prussia, (Germany's biggest state) to the position of Emperor of Germany. Wilhelm's governance and his policies led to social and political unrest in the empire and eventually led to World War I. Kirchner was born in Aschaffenburg, the son of a chemist in the paper industry. Though his parents encouraged his artistic tendencies they did not consider it a profession and after his schooling, his parents sent him to an architecture course in a Technical College in Dresden (http://tigtail.org). While there he formed an artists group with two other students, Heckel and Schmidt- Rotluff. They called themselves Die Brucke, literally, The Bridge. They considered themselves to be a bridge from the old set ways into the future of art and society in Germany. Kirchner was the driving force of this group and his work endures as a striking commentary on German society at the time. His most famous works as his art developed were those belonging to his "Streetwalker" series. Two of those paintings, Potsdamer Platz (1914) and The Street (1913) will be discussed as an example of how the period in which he lived influenced him. In order to fully comprehend the import of his work it is also necessary to understand the time in which he lived. Germany from 1880 to the time of the Great War was undergoing great turmoil on several fronts. Firstly it was a time of immense expansion on an industrial and technological front (Myers and Praeger, p11). Artists all over Europe were invigorated by this infusion of modernity. However Germanys unified empire was beginning to crack. After the appointment of Wilhelm as Kaiser there was a growing rift between the Emperor and his Chancellor Bismarck on various issues of social policy and he finally forced Bismarck to resign in 1890. With the dismissal of the Chancellor Wilhelm forced the passing of several policies that were completely unsuitable for a technologically developing nation (www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures). He also adopted political stands that led to the development of World War I. On the social front things were not much better in Germany during this period. Women's rights were virtually unheard of; women were unable to vote until quite late, they had very few legal financial rights and job opportunities and marriage and children were the only way for a respectable woman

Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Portfolio - Essay Example To say that this course helped me crystallize many of my thoughts and feelings would be an understatement. The paragraphs that follow would detail the ways in which I developed my thoughts and learnt to form them into coherent arguments reflecting some beliefs that are close to my heart. As is evident from the classroom discussions t as well as the online exchanges that I had with my peers, this course helped me reframe some of my core beliefs and attitudes towards Euthanasia and the right to die. This is one issue on which I have firm beliefs and as people who know me well would attest, I firmly believe that we as individuals have a right to die when â€Å"the time is up†. Towards this end, I practice what I preach as is evident from the fact that I have made my will and want to go without â€Å"no tube for eating† and â€Å"no support†. This is what I am and what I will be. The reason that I mentioned about making a will was that for many people, the controversy surrounding Euthanasia is primarily due to the fact that there might be malicious intentions in letting people decide on whether they want to live or not because their near and dear ones would be awaiting the gains from that person’s will. This would not be the case with me and I have already made arrangements in terms of drawing up the will as I have explained above. When a person carries out an act of euthanasia, he brings about the death of another person because he believes the latters present existence is so bad that she would be better off dead, or believes that unless he intervenes and ends her life, it will become so bad that she would be better off dead. The motive of the person who commits an act of euthanasia is to benefit the one whose death is brought about. (Though what was just said also holds for many instances of physician-assisted suicide, some wish to restrict the use of the latter term to forms of assistance which stop short of the physician ‘bringing about the death’

Nestle Essay Example for Free

Nestle Essay Nestle, one of the largest packaged food company has been unanimously declared a leader in its field. Founded and located in Vevey, Switzerland, it was established in 1905 and from then on it started its journey of delivering quality food products to consumers worldwide (About Nestle, 2008). Any firm, regardless of its size, national or multinational relies heavily on its purchasing department and supply management to add value to the firms operations. f a firm compromises on its purchasing standards it will suffer losses in its manufacturing process and ultimately in sales. For any manufacturing firm, purchasing and supply management are the first step which are directly linked to all consequent stages of the manufacturing process ,thereby it is extremely important to start of the entire process with an efficient and effective purchasing procedure so that it is reflected in the final product (Stilson Bachman, Sep. 2009). The globalization of Nestle as well as the accelerating competition in the food sector emphasizes on the need for regular assessments of their purchasing strategies and supply management system. The purchasing system at Nestle functions as part of the supply chain management rather than an independent function and aims to achieve cost minimization and profit optimization (Swerdlick, Summer 2008). At Nestle there are a few basic purchasing objectives: †¢ Efficient and timely delivery of goods, materials and services. †¢ Continuous assessment of the performance and reliability of suppliers. †¢ Adding value to the company functions and contributing to the growth and profitability of the company. †¢ Availing benefits offered by suppliers and encouraging competition among suppliers which tends to create a healthy working environment (Swerdlick, Summer 2008). At Nestle there are two basic purchasing roles which take into consideration the strategic and operational activities taking place within the company: †¢ Strategic buyers along with the expert opinions of other professionals are responsible for performing market analysis, screening suppliers and selecting the most appropriate ones, negotiations and contract management. Amongst the many responsibilities the most important ones that strategic buyers are faced with is the safeguarding of quality standards, adding to product development and channelling supplier technology to add value to the company products. †¢ Operational buyers, on the other hand are responsible for the operational part of the purchasing process i.e. sending purchase orders, receiving delivery for them etc. these functions can be performed by any department in the organization which requires any goods or services (Czerwonka, Summer 2008). Planning and strategy determination are extremely crucial factors involved in the purchasing process, since they are the basic steps towards the achievement of growth and profitability objectives of the company. although the basic aim that is kept in mind while determining the strategy is cost minimization but at the same time equal importance is given to the issue of supplier commitment to work with Nestle. At the same time ,strategy determination also takes into account factors of business sector objectives and value addition opportunities. These objectives eventually form the basis of a sustainable and unique market advantage (Stilson Bachman, Sep. 2008). The next step is then to come to an agreement with suppliers to impose few standardized specifications which would not only result in an efficient supply chain management but also lead to lower costs and greater price leverage (Weiss, Summer 2008). At Nestle it is strongly emphasized that purchasing is not just restricted to just one specific department rather it’s a cross functional team effort where everyone has a say in the operational activities of the purchasing process (The Keys to Success, Summer 2008). A good supplier selection is extremely important since in the long run it is the supplier who adds value to the company’s operations and contributes to its growth and success relative to its competitors. And it is for this reason that Nestle strongly believes in maintaining amiable relations with suppliers based on mutual trust and understanding. It believes that suppliers are a vital part of the company’s development process where they have a big role in identifying niche opportunities in the market, providing new product ideas and adding their innovativeness and creativity to the overall business operations. Therefore, Nestle has set a standard criteria based on which it selects the most ideal suppliers who will prove to be beneficial to both the companies (The Keys to Success (AN 32186182), Summer 2008). The criterion is: †¢ Level of innovativeness that the supplier believes in implementing in his company. †¢ Financial position and reputation in the market. †¢ Organizational structure and mode of operations in the company. †¢ Ability and willingness to adapt to the working practices and ethics followed by Nestle (About Nestle, 2008). Since Nestle is involved in food manufacturing, quality management is a crucial issue because lack of quality in food products is not only a risk to consumer health but is also a serious criminal offense in certain countries. To maintain quality standards, Nestle is highly dependent on its suppliers to assure Nestle of the delivery of top quality products and services. For this it is absolutely necessary for the suppliers to be aware of Nestlà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s quality policy as well as its safety and quality control standards (Czerwonka, Summer 2008). To further ensure that quality standards are maintained, suppliers of raw materials and packaging materials undergo an audit process where the quality of goods and services provided by any given supplier are properly assessed and inspected (Margarella, Aug. 2003). Nestle requires from its supplier that defective and faulty goods are replaced or rectified within a reasonable time period. Each supplier that gets a chance to work with Nestle undergoes intense scrutiny before it gets an approval because Nestle cannot afford to compromise on its years of excellence in delivering hygienic, nutritional, safe and high quality food products to its consumers. To ensure that the competitive advantage of quality is maintained, Nestle evaluates the ethics and business conduct, competence, sustainable environmental practices and process controls before giving its final approval to any supplier. Purchasing is not just a one-time process rather it’s an on-going process for a huge company like Nestle which is generating revenue in millions (Principles of Purchasing, 2008). For this reason it has employed a computerized information system that maintains inventory management, list of suppliers, quality issues pertaining to certain goods or suppliers, variation in prices in the market, forecasted prices etc.This system allows for timely and better decision making since real time data comprehensive data is available at all times and also the management can be immediately informed of any discrepancies in the purchasing procedure or any unexpected problems that may arise (Stilson Bachman, Sep. 2009). Nestle uses an internal web based tool (Purchasing intranet) which is extremely effective in communicating with the internal purchasing community about quantities being supplied, price variations or any such matters (Principles of Purchasing, 2008). In this age of information technology, Nestle has realized the importance of integrating technology into their day to day operations for better efficiency, cost benefits and enhancement in services to customers and it is for this reason that Nestle is also currently involved in e-procurement which has seemed to cut down on considerable costs for the company. Nestle is a strict disciplinary when it comes to following legal obligations and requirements. Purchasing is a business process which involves the entering into an agreement with a third party to purchase and facilitate the delivery of goods and services. For this reason it is extremely important to have written agreements where the terms are clearly defined and are precise thereby eliminating any chances of potential misunderstanding between both the parties   (Principles of Purchasing, 2008). Nestle feels that there is a strong link between efficient purchasing and supply management and the quality of personnel employed in the company (Principles of Purchasing, 2008). The professionalism, competence entrepreneurial qualities and pro-activeness are factors that need be there in the human resources to avail maximum benefits while procuring goods and services from suppliers (The Keys to Success (AN 32186182), Summer 2008). A motivated and dedicated purchasing team will provide and effective function and may represent a competitive advantage for the company. To avail this advantage the human resources at Nestle are trained, motivated and encouraged to create new challenges and expand knowledge while keeping in view the company objectives and policies.

Portrayal Of Women In Womens Fashion Magazine Advertisements Media Essay

Portrayal Of Women In Womens Fashion Magazine Advertisements Media Essay Considerable numbers of research and commentary have shown that there are differences in female and male portrayals in print advertisements which are not exactly similar to the reality (Davis, 1970; Douglas, 1976). Generally, they include negative representations of women which effects mostly the younger generations (Matlin, 1987). According to Bardwick (1967), since the 1960s, there have been growing concerns about the womens portrayal in the media. Furthermore, Rakow (1985) stated that there was a renaissance of womens movement created awareness to the portrayal of women in the media in 1960s. In advertisements, there is a tendency to portray women as sex or fashion objects and homemakers (Wortzel et al, 1974). These stereotypes mostly do not acknowledge women in work or that they can be more than homemakers or sex objects. Furthermore, it may be concluded that stereotypes still exists since then and seems to reflect what behaviours are acceptable in the society. Media can play an important part in societies. Perse (2001) illustrated the effects of media illustrated as `cognitive, affective or behavioural`. Similarly, Lippmann (1922) discovered that mass communication can also be foundation of people`s perspective of the world. Therefore, people may also acquire values, norms and customs through media, in our case stereotypes. Baker (1996) one said When experiential knowledge does not exist, we often assume that images we see in film reflect reality. Moreover, Lippmann (1922) presented stereotypes in his book `Public Opinion` while describing them as pictures in our heads which help us to understand the world. Similarly, Bootzin (1991) described stereotypes as mental symbols which illustrate different kinds of people. These include all the knowledge that people have or believe to be largely true. One of the most perplexing and complex issues currently facing advertisers is how best to portray women in advertising. Feminist critiques were mostly focuses on the limited and unrealistic portrayals of women such as being dependent on men or under representation of women with their careers (Courtney et al, 1983; Wolf, 1991). Other critics, on the other hand, focus on the sexual representation of women in advertisement which objectifies women to sell the product (Reichert et al, 2004; Ford, 2004; Lambiase, 2003). Moreover, there are further accusations towards the advertisers about the womens dependency to men and promoting about something called ideal beauty and the increase in the sexual portrayals. Since advertising is a powerful tool for creating and spreading cultural ideals, and people are exposed to it constantly, it is not surprising that advertisements are targeted to such comments. The reason why I chose this topic is both by personal interest and desire to analyse the eff ects of stereotyping in women magazines. This study will investigate the stereotypes which exist in todays world connected with women in fashion magazine advertisements and measures to what extend female students in UK associates themselves with these portrayals. 1.1. Research Background Advertising may have developed over time and became a tool for endorsing the consumerist society; however it is also a tool for exchange of meanings by using products and services in todays world. According to Pawlowski (2007), in the world of branding, products are representation of certain meanings or beliefs and consumers are purchasing them in the belief that they are actually buying into a lifestyle or an image. Womens fashion magazines have become a common advertising tool because up to 95 per cent of the space in the womens magazines filled with advertisements (McCracken, 1993). The power of magazines may be coming from the variety of interest and needs that people have. As a result, we can conclude that this has created a demand for magazines with different focuses, such as general interest, automobile, fashion or women. In addition, Sanders (1985) suggested that there are different buying behaviours and motivations among men and women. According to Calder (2003), magazines c an be considered as brands and concluded that they have apparent individual character profiles that audiences appreciate as well as matching these characteristics to their own. It has been suggested that young women choose to read womens fashion magazines to learn about style and beauty (Levine et al, 1996). Calders (2003) research about magazine readers experiences ranked the most important motivations which make people read magazines. Table 1. Motivations for Reading a Magazine 1. I get value for my time and money 2. I like it (i.e. negative correlation with It disappoints me) 3. It makes me smarter/cleverer 4. Its my personal timeout 5. I often reflect on it 6. The stories absorb me 7. I learn things first here 8. Its part of my routine 9. I find the magazine high-quality and sophisticated 10. I trust it 11. I feel good when I read it 12. Its relevant and useful to me 13. Its brief and easy for me to read 14. I build relationships by talking about and sharing it 15. I find unique and surprising things 16. It improves me, and helps me try new things 17. I save and refer to it 18. I keep or share articles 19. I think others in the household would enjoy the magazine 20. Its for people like me Source: Calder et al. (2003: 13) Furthermore, the same study also investigated womens attitudes to womens fashion magazines and discovered that 69% of women sees advertisements in magazines as a source of information and trust the advertisements in the magazine (Calder et al, 2003). 1.2. Research Objective Based on the literature, this research will try to answer the question of how do female students relate themselves to the portrayal of women in womens fashion magazine advertisements. This question is designed to fill a gap in literature which exists among the analysis of portrayals women in advertisements and if advertisements reflects the female students in the UK. The study is focused on UK; however there are referrals to researches from other countries where they discovered proofs of a kind which may not be applied in the UK. Main objective for this thesis is to answer the research question by analysing the aim and the effectiveness of advertisements and gender stereotypes, and responses of the participants. Structure of the Dissertation Chapter 1 starts with providing an introduction to the subject, briefly explains the reasons behind magazine advertising and presenting the research objective as well as describing the structure of dissertation. Chapter 2 discusses the previous studies related with the subject and reviews the concepts of advertising, gender, gender stereotypes, gender portrayals in advertisement and feminist critique. Chapter 3 introduces the method this research will adopt and explains the reasoning behind the selection while providing information about research process and data analysis. Chapter 4 reports the findings of focus group research and links the concepts to the theory. Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the research in accordance to the analysis of the findings and discuss the implications and limitations to provide a direction for future researchers. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1. Introduction to Literature Many studies about advertising and consumer research analysed variety of reactions toward an advertisement (Derbaix, 1995; Sengupta et al, 2008). Similar to this case, researchers such as Goffman (1979), have investigated the gender representation in advertising, especially sexual representation of women different than men, researchers has tried to explore the responses of women as well as the effect. However, can women associates themselves to these representations? Do they perceive these images negatively or positively? According to Sengupta (2008), responses of men and women to the use of stereotypical portrayals in advertising, mainly the magazines, have hardly been explored. A relative research of womens magazine emphasising on sexuality could introduce new results, specifically if it illustrated womens perceptions in positive or negative light. This study will attempt to fill the gap in the literature with investigating these questions. Goffman (1979) defined advertisements as `commercial realism`, which means the portrayals are hyper ritualized and edited,  and Hammer (2009) suggested that advertisements are portraying the world `in ways that could be real`. On the other hand, Schudson (1984) said that abstraction which is not dependent of characteristics, associations or managing something as a concept, is vital in advertising in terms of meanings and aesthetic. This could mean that advertising relies on these meanings. Furthermore, designing a world in advertisements does not have to be real or purely fantasy which he defined as `capitalist realism`. In contrast, realism defined as a fact which characterizes a person, an object or a circumstance that is true or accurate. These two concepts, abstraction and reality, can be combined in advertisements. Advertisements may create a balance between different concepts; gender and sexuality seems to be more effective in our culture. According to Hammer (2009), advertisements are promoting the questions of gender and sex in a cultural discourse. These concepts will be analysed further in this research. Relevant analyses have provided an insight for the context of this analysis. It has been suggested that in terms of reaching the consumers, especially the younger generation, there has been a shift toward modern and innovative forms of marketing (Schmitt, 1999) such as social networks. However, rationality may not always be the case in advertising (Fill, 2009). The review of literature in this study has focused on these subjects; advertising as a form of communication and its affects to the society, existing stereotypes of women, the way advertising portrays women according to this stereotypes and the feminist critique. 2.2. Advertisements Advertising images are a central part of the experienced visual world. Reality and advertising do not constitute two separate spheres acting upon one another; advertising and the mass media contribute to the visual landscape that constructs reality. Schroeder et al, 1998 Advertising is a tool to form gender identities as well as culture. Likewise, McCracken (1987) explained that advertising is reflecting cultural values and presents them through media, and Kernan (1993) suggested that advertising mainly shapes the gender identity. According to Berger (2004), advertising can be regarded as a type of communication that is influential and effective which can also use sexploitation of the female body as an instrument. According to Wilson (1995), the beauty stereotypes were promoted in a sexual way through advertising media which has the motivation (profit), the means (media exposure) and the instruments (language and photos). Although these stereotypes can be considered as unrealistic, it is accessible to every woman. Furthermore, Pawlowski (2007) argues that these stereotypes have been created to maintain `dominant ideologies` for preserving commercial interest. On the other hand, Holbrook (1982) suggested that tangible benefits which describes utilitar ian meanings of goods and services also been widely used in advertising same as experiential perspectives which presents symbolic indications of subjective attributions. Similarly, according to Schroeder (1998), the visual images could create meanings to consumers in different ways. To create a relation between the images and meanings, Berger (1989) presented four processes: cause and effect, signification, resemblance and convention. Moreover, to create resemblance in targeted consumers mind, advertisers probably use `typical` people in advertisements. Schwartz (1974) discussed the aim of designing an advertisement. According to him, it is the creation of `pleasurable emotions` which will be prompt by the product in the market. He also said that `I do not care what number of people remember or get the message. I am concerned with how people are affected by the stimuli` (Schwartz, 1974). Davidson (1992) argued that advertisements in many womens magazines, aims to promote the idea of material needs and anxiety to women within the construction of the good life. He defines the idea of good life as a mythic world which contains perfect people enjoying numerous of product. Jhally (2000), on the other hand, claimed that these ideas are unattainable and advertising is not supposed to show how people should act but reflects how people desire; which is a paradox, because these unattainable desires are the reason why women are attracted to womens fashion magazines (Pawlowski, 2007). On the other hand, Brierly (1995) argues that advertising is about a form of fantasy and escapism which means that it does not describe the reality. Some contemporary advertisements does not even state the product or service such as Levi`s commercial `Kevin the Hamster` from 1988. The ad considered as one of most surreal ads ever which introduces a hamster running in his wheel named Kevin. In the end, the wheel breaks and Kevin dies of boredom. Until the Levi`s logo shows up, nobody knows what product or which brand was being promoted. Williamson (1978) explained that abstract connections can be made among lifestyles and brands that consumers transfer meanings in the advertisements onto the product. Cultural perceptions also dictate a prominence on the `intertextual nature` of advertisements and their correlation to the wider cultural discussion on gender identities and femininity (Sandikci, 1998). While the concepts are intertextual, which they are based on prior texts; meanings of ads are also connected with other cultural texts (Goldman, 1992). According to Sandikci (1998), this occurrence was mostly disregarded by many empirical researches about portrayal of women in advertising. Then again, women are constantly subjected to different kinds of images and portrayals of femininity. These portrayals are also taking place in other media forms and the effect of such exposure influences how any specific representation will be interpreted (Sandikci, 1998), which could mean that audiences may transfer meanings from one media form to another through these interpretations. On the other hand, some researchers proposed that there many possible reactions and women can actually resist or alter the meanings of these meanings (Davis et al, 1993; Wilson, 1985). The effect of advertisements in the society was mentioned in this research and similarly, Moschis (1978) explained that gender role portrayals in the ads are influencing self-concept, achievement aspiration and self-images of the members` in a society. Since the 1960s, gender stereotypes in advertising are subjected to many debates (Odekerken-Schroder et al, 2002). Furthermore, these portrayals appeared to be increased in many ways recently (Ferguson et al, 1990). 2.2.1. Sex in Advertisements Previous researches discovered that women are portrayed as `heterosexual masculine desire` in magazine ads (Reichert et al, 2004; Baker, 2005). Ford (2008) defined the gender portrayals and sexual practices as abnormal, pathologic, and deviant and associated them with the political economy and social culture. In the western cultures sex is a natural behaviour of a human biology but `normal gender roles, sexuality, and sexual practice` can be varied among cultures (Foucault, 1988). Furthermore, Rubin (1984) described sex as a natural force that exists prior to social life. On the other hand, Ford (2008) argued that gender and sexual norms shaped by ` material bodies` within the cultures which they exist. Similar to Foucault, Hofstede (1998) also suggested that the womens objectification and sexuality in magazines can be different based on cultural values and equality of the sexes. In advertising, the perception of sex sells is still widely popular (Reichert et al, 2004) and sex has been used extensively to sell more than just products. Ford (2008) explained that advertisers also promote trends, ideas and stereotypes which could mean that they can give sexual meanings, implicit or explicit, to every product as well as attracting consumers with the fantasy of sex. According to the study of Cosmopolitan Magazine, the idea of sexual freedom, lower political authoritarianism and using models from the western countries have caused more sexuality in magazine ads (Nelson et al, 2005). Based Lambiase`s (2003) research about erotic rhetoric in advertising in magazines, it can be concluded that these messages which are assembled visually are extremely persuasive. On the other hand, these researchers were only selected advertisements which include sexual contents that are not related to the products` attributes or usage; but it was found that these ads either implicitly o r explicitly offers the promise of sexual benefits (Liambiase et al, 2003). However, these analyses create more in depth understanding of the messages behind advertising visuals. Some researchers discovered that level of sexuality, in fact, increased over time (Pawlowski, 2007). Reichert (2004) measured the level of sexuality in magazine based on an extension of a research about advertisements in 1983 and 1993; analysed them from 2003 by using Goffmans coding analysis. This coding analysis includes five categories as relative size, function ranking, feminine touch, ritualization of subordination and licenced withdrawal (Goffman, 1976). Findings of the study revealed that women are still portrayed in the same stereotypes and being objectified; however the level of sexuality rose over time. According to Jacobsen (1995), sexual contents are being used more than before to reach consumers. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the degree of nakedness remained at the same level in the ads (Soley at al, 1986), number of models who are objectified sexually in the images increased over time. (Kilbourne (2005) argued that young and beautiful individuals are mostly po rtrayed as sexual objects and especially, young adolescents are exposed to these sexual images through the media. Furthermore, she concluded that it is not possible to measure the effects of these exposures. Particularly, products such as clothing or fragrance are advertised in more sexualised way due to their nature. (Reichert, 2004). 2.3. Research on Advertising and Gender Schroeder (1998) explained that in media images, social psychologists agree that there are differences in gender portrayals. According to Pollock (2001), visual images have a significant part in the creation of gender identities, which may not display the reality. Belkaoui (1976) suggested that previous empirical researches had been very limited with the purpose of portraying the role of women in advertisements and the changes in the view female roles. Similarly, Schroeder (1998) explained that the differences in male and female portrayals and their effects are being subjected to researches recently. In advertising, most of these differences can also affect the level of gender stereotyping of a given country. Although there are no such laws yet, EUs Womens Rights Committee and European Parliament suggested that any kind of gender stereotyping in the media should be banned (Rice, 2012). In addition, media researchers showed their concerns about stereotyping of women previously and som e of them approached to the subject empirically. 2.3.1 Advertisements, Arts and Gender In order to find out the presentation of women in advertisements, Schroeder (1998) analysed the relationship between arts, gender and advertising. He concluded that descriptions are the basic point of interpretation which both arts and advertising includes. It could mean that descriptive images such as a light, genre and subject are the basic point of interpretation. Advertising has also been described as ` aesthetic objects` (Schroeder, 2004). According to Lury (1996), consumption was `aestheticized` through fashion, style and incorporation of arts through the creativity inside the advertising campaigns. In addition, Schroeder (1998) suggested that advertising acquired some methods form art history, to portray the women and highlight the difference between genders. Schroeder (1998) suggested that representation of gender differences in arts involves the nudity, women in captivity, and portrayals of male leaders often with armours. According to Bohm-Duchen (1992), in terms of cultural standards about looks and attractiveness, female body is the main interest. Berger (1972) also highlighted the connection between art and advertisements. There is a similarity between women portrayal in arts and advertising; and Berger (1972) explained this theory by quoting from art history sources. He concluded that the way of seeing women and images which portrays them has not changed since then. Schroeder (1998) agrees Bohm-Duchen by suggesting that women are perceived ` voyeuristically` and being `fantasized`. In addition, women seem to be characterised in a passive way in both art and advertising. Berger (1972) concluded that women are portrayed different than men; the reason is not because of the difference between femininity and masculinity, but the main focus is to be appeal to male audience. It has been concluded that advertising uses many methods from art portray women and mostly, this supports the inequality between ge nders. 2.3.2. Gender Portrayals It has been suggested that gender role portrayals creates a problem when advertisers prefers to portray a woman (Whipple, 1985). According to Pawlowski (2007), advertising demonstrates a persons role in the society, especially when it comes to gender and sex; and depends onto the established representations of gender. In addition, advertising can also play an important role in shaping the perceptions of the society about gender. It was concluded in the study of Courtney and Lockeretzs (1971) about the portrayal of roles of women in women magazines that women have very limited roles in advertisements. Venkatesh (1994) investigated the perspectives of market researchers and customers about women. According to his research, women tend to be viewed as a wife, homemaker, hostess, mother, or a single girl preparatory to these roles (Davis, 1970). Similarly, Rajagopal (2002) explained that woman has one of three roles in their portrayal in advertisements which are not truly `represent women s diversity: sex or beauty symbol, mother and housewife. ` Furthermore, Scanzoni (1977) highlighted other roles of women outside the family; for instance, business woman or professional employee, which can be called social roles, were taken into little or no consideration. On the other hand, it was concluded that women are regularly be associated with two kinds of social representation; desirability and aggressiveness (Umiker-Sebeok 1981). Similar to Schroeder (1998), Linder (2004) have analysed the effects of gender roles in the media and concluded that stereotypes in gender portrayals are still applied in advertising even today. However, this is a startling outcome since there are social and cultural changes about womens status in the society since 1950s. On the other hand, especially womens fashion magazines such as Vogue, these changes have not been affected; since there are significantly higher amount of stereotypical portrayals. Furthermore, Linder (2004) concluded that stereotypical or sexualized representations are the key method of portraying women. `This portrayal of women as inferior and flawed is a necessity for the existence of a womens fashion magazines such as Vogue, which is primarily a means for advertising and selling products that are suggested to be a cure for womens feelings of inferiority and inappropriateness (Linder, 2004). This could justify the enduring stereotypes in womens fashion magazines throughout time. These unrealistic promises may create insecurities and inferiority complex. Goffman (1979) defines the representation of female body in fashion advertisements as `puckish styling` and explaining it as `a sort of body clowning`. However, MacCracken (1993) argues that these advertisements are within a `dominant moral order`. Although an advertisement sells an image or an idea, women should be able to choose what message they would like to give or how they would like to present themselves to the world. One of the criticisms is about the difference in genders portrayal in advertisements. Schroeder (1998) explained that non-verbal behaviours and abilities vary among genders. Gender representation in advertisements has been subjected to several studies. Rajagopal (2002) also studied the effects of advertisements on portraying different gender images. It has been found that there is a significant bias in representation of both genders. According to Milburn, Carney and Ramirez (2001), males are mainly more knowledgeable, active (such as running) and authoritative; o n the other hand females are more likely to be young and dressed in more revealing clothes and not very active as males (such as sitting). Goffman, in his book Gender Advertisement (1979), argued that `women are treated as children` in advertising. He explained that, in order to identify the difference between men and women in advertisements, parent-child relationship should be examined. In advertisements, men tend to be portrayed as the parent whereas women behave as a child. For instance, Goffman (1979) figured that, in ads, a men`s hands portrayed as strongly holding an item and has the power to manipulate it, while women`s hand is just touching the item and not have the full power to control it. Another example is, in many advertisements, women are mentally wandering away under the protection of a male or women appears in finger to mouth position which reminds a children`s behaviour. Another argument is, in magazine advertisements, womens body was shown more frequently than the images of mens body (Hall et al, 1994). Jung (2009) argued that these objectifications of women are connected with the gender stereotypes wh ich come from the womens portrayal in the media. Similar to Courtney and Lockeretz (1971), Goffman (1979) proposed that standards of femininity and masculinity have been created by the help of advertisements and explained the signs of gender stereotypes in advertising: women have less prestigious profession; men are in control of the situations and making eye contact with audiences while women looking at a distance place or a male model whom can protect her or simply drifting mentally; women self-touching herself which shows the female body as gentle and fragile whereas men grasp, shape or product an item. As a result, women seem to be perceived as objects that are desired by men and these stereotypes are emphasized on sexuality. Furthermore, these images of women body exists predominantly in womens fashion magazines (Ferguson et al, 1990). Evidently, there is a difference between womens sexual representation in contrast to men. Nevertheless, the degree of sexuality in womens magazi nes and consumers reaction has barely been studied (Pawlowski, 2007). Richins (1991) analysed the responses of female undergraduate students to models in ads and discovered that women are constantly compare their bodies with models which results in dissatisfaction of their physical experiences. Although, the aim of advertising is to sell the product; products becomes less effective to the desired appearance or audiences are not convinced enough to buy them (Thomas, 2000). Curry (1998) suggested that the ideals of beauty portrayed in the magazines are not attainable and some people think that these portrayals are not realistic. According to Whipple (1985), advertisers tend to ask the question of `What model- product pairings will be most effective in creating favourable consumer attitudes? ` He concluded that the choices are based on the attitude towards the appropriateness of the combinations and previous information about the target segment. As a result, stereotypes become an issue. For instance, men are be portrayed with electronics or automobiles wh ile women are being portrayed with household products (Aireck, 1982). Current studies suggest that female models shown in the advertisements started to embrace male roles such as being powerful and authoritarian (Schroeder, 1998). On the other hand, Stern (1994) discussed that these reversed roles are the result of a strategy, which is showing products more attractive and appeal to men. Moreover, it was indicated that women are more aware of the stereotypes in advertising than men (Odekerken-Schroder et al, 2002). On the other hand, Wortzel and Frisbie (1974) discovered that gender preferences are affected by the functions of a product rather than societies opinion. However, Sciglimpaglia (1979) argues that when womens role in a society is less traditional, criticism towards the current portrayal in advertising is higher. Society members` `self-image, achievement aspiration and self-concept` are influenced by these portrayals in advertisements (Moschis et al, 1998). Myers (1992) associated the ideal body image with the good life image which could drive people to pursue such images whether it is achievable or not. However, Patterson (2002) explained that the reliability of these images as a symbol of femininity is being questioned, if it could be transformed and reconstructed in order to represent the roles. The beauty portrayals have been idealised and exists for al l age demographics. Possibly, teenagers are more easily influenced age demographic and teenagers are possibly the most influenced demographic and older women seem to be kept in the side-line. On the other hand, some campaigns are using more realistic representations and challenging the stereotypes by ` celebrating the diverse, the healthy, the real, and the truly beautiful such as the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty (Patterson, 2006). The Dove ad campaign rejects the conventional beauty stereotypes and instead, shows women in many ages, sizes and shapes. According to Neff (2004), the campaign undermines the basic proposition of decades of beauty-care advertising. The ad campaign portrays average women with variety of images and asking rhetorical questions as wrinkled or wonderful? which is regarded as unattractive in contemporary advertising world. Examples of the ad campaign are shown below. http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Tuh1CXp_vRM/TzRUfToFpAI/AAAAAAAAAE4/2iLCJqa_bLA/s1600/realcurves1.pnghttp://www.wonderbranding.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/dove_wideweb__430x327.jpg Schroeder (2004) concluded that advertising has function of spreading gender roles and setting identities, while Patterson (2002) explains gender as a dominant concept in advertising. Moreover, Myers (1992) suggested that creation and reinforcement of gender identities has been supported by advertising as well as broadcasting them. Similarly to the recent changes in advertising (Dove campaign or advocates in the EU Parliament), it has been suggested that there has been a substantial improvement in emphasizing womans expanding role as a working member of society (Wagner, 1973); especially with the influence of womens movement in the American society (Venkatesh, 1980). Especially in demographically varied womens magazines, higher female employments resulted in changes in the portrayal of women such as more professional, independent and confident images (Chafetz et al, 1993). As a result, it can be concluded that increasing number of women

Racism in Literature Essay -- Racial Relations, Strange Fruit

Racism, a disease of the ignorant, is a horrific part of society, and has reared its ugly head throughout history, and is continuing to do the same today. Racism comes in many shapes and forms, directed towards a variation of cultures. It can end lives and tear communities apart. Often times, there are people who see racism, and are inspired to write about it, with the goal in mind to make a difference and change societies belief. Abel Meeropol and Harper Lee had that goal in common, when writing â€Å"Strange Fruit†, a poem about lynching, and To Kill a Mockingbird, a novel about a persecuting southern to. Both the contrast made and the word choice are effective parts of the poem. Symbolism and satire are also big parts. The theme of racism is also important, which is supported by the title and the author’s tone. To begin, the contrast within the poem, and the word choice were all very meaningful, and helped develop the poem into the amazing piece of literature it is. First, the contrast of hideous events in the beautiful south is quite an eye opener. The author paints a beautiful image of the setting, with â€Å"Pastoral scene of the gallant south†¦ Scent of magnolia sweet and fresh† (5). Then, in the next lines, the reader learns of the horrific events that have occurred, taking the beauty out of the land. â€Å"Black body swinging in the poplar trees. The bulging eyes and twisted mouth†(3). The second meaningful part of the poem is having every word hit home. Abel Meeropol knew how to take words, and use them for a way in which he could shock the reader, and make him or her have an empty guilty feeling in the pit of his or her stomach. Next, numbness has become a feeling that is felt too often, and that option is thrown out the window wi... ...which can be looked at like being racist towards others is a sin. However, unlike in â€Å"Strange Fruit†, the tone in To Kill a Mockingbird is very innocent, due to the point of view of a child. This supports the theme because it shows the reader why racism is wrong, without any bias, or bitterness. Incredible authors can make the reader feel strong emotions through their words, and take on a new perspective on the world, and life itself. Abel Meeropol, author of the poem â€Å"Strange Fruit†, and Harper Lee, author of the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, did a great job of beginning to knock down the mental stone walls people have built overtime, and making them see the wrongness of racism. The authors both used inner-contrast, word choice, symbolism, satire, and the theme of racism, supported by the title and tone, to create incredible, groundbreaking works of literature.

Reading My Reflections :: essays research papers

Reading My Reflections When I was in fourth grade, my music teacher asked for volunteers to help move folding tables. Of the eight people who raised their hands, I was the only girl. Of the seven people that she chose, I was not one. My nine-year-old world was flipped upside-down by this incident. I was absolutely irate. For the rest of the forty-five minute class, I sat in silence, fuming over the injustice of society. What automatically made a boy stronger than me? In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft was irate at the notion that men were automatically considered intellectually superior to women. In truth, she was irate at the notion that women were incapable of being intellectual, period. In her essay, "A Vindication of the Rights of Women," she ran down the entire list of the injustices done to women during her time. The list was long and largely accredited to the uneducated lives women led. At a time when the question of whether or not to educate women was very controversial, Wollstonecraft asked, "Consider†¦whether, when men contend for their freedom, and to be allowed to judge for themselves respecting their own happiness, it be not inconsistent and unjust to subjugate women, even though you firmly believe that you are acting in the manner best calculated to promote their happiness? Who made man the exclusive judge†¦?"(Primis, 10) Women were not given the opportunity to decide for themselves, much less decide that they wanted to be educated. Women were expected to trust that the men were truly acting in the best interest of women when deciding upon their education. They were expected to trust men who did not know how it felt to be the lowest on the food chain. They were not autonomous human beings. I know how Wollstonecraft felt. I knew how she felt when I was nine and discriminated against merely, and quite obviously, because I was a girl. I had to accept that someone- someone who did not know my capacities as a human being- was deciding what was "in my best interest." What made a man so much greater than a woman that he should carry all the heavy things and she all the light things? What made a man so much greater than a woman that he should be able to study the great philosophical theories and she study only the knitting and cooking?

Moses and the Burning Bush Essay -- essays research papers

Two men are walking to temple. The older man says to the younger man, â€Å"So, do you know why the Jewish people aren’t voting for President Bush?† The younger man replies with an inquisitive â€Å"No.† â€Å"Well,† says the older man, â€Å"the last time the Jewish people followed a Bush they wound up wandering in the Desert.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This recent political joke is in reference to the Exodus story of Moses and the burning bush. As stated in the bible it reads:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Moses was tending the flock of Jethro, his father in law, the priest of Midian. He led the flock far into the wilderness and came to Horev, the mountain of Elohim. The angel of YHVH appeared to him in a flame of fire out of a bush. He gazed: the bush is blasing fire yet the bush is not consumed!† (Exodus 3:1-2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exodus is the second of the five â€Å"books of Moses† that tells the story of the Exodus of Israelites from Egypt through the Sinai Desert. When Moses was born, the Israelites were oppressed by the Egyptian Pharaoh and bound to a harsh life of labor taking part in building some of the great public works of Egypt such as the pyramids, fortresses, and installations to regulate the flow of the Nile River. For fear that the Israelite population would continue to increase, the Pharaoh insisted that every male Hebrew child would be killed at birth. Ironically, during this oppressive period, Moses, the â€Å"future deliverer of Israel†, was born. To protect his life, his mother sent him down the Nile in a specially woven ark. He was found by the Pharaoh’s daughter who took him in and, to add to the irony, she hired his mother to be his foster nurse. The baby boy grew up and was adopted into the Pharaoh’s household and named Moses. His name is derived from the Egyptian root â€Å"mose† meaning â€Å"son†, but in the Bible, it is said to hale from the Hebrew root meaning â€Å"drawn out of the water.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though Moses, was raised as an Egyptian, he knew that he was truly Hebrew. After seeing an Egyptian taskmaster cruelly beating a Hebrew, Moses became so furious that he murdered the Egyptian. Fearing that the Pharaoh would find out what he had done, Moses fled to the wilderness, â€Å"the eternal safe retreat of outcasts from ancient society and of those in revolt against authority.† Moses found himself in the Sinai Desert amongst other ... ...suffering from harsh treatment and facing eradication, they had hope and faith for a better life. A life which Moses helped to bring them following his command from God. The excerpt from the Zohar concerning Moses and the burning bush ends with an uplifting quote, â€Å"Happy are Israel! The Blessed Holy One has separated them from all nations and called them His Children, as it is written: ‘You are children of YHVH your God!’ (Deuteronomy 14:1)† The people of Israel had endured a great deal of suffering in which most people would begin to question their faith in God. However, through this suffering, those of Israel have continued to separate themselves from others and persevered to serve their Lord. I feel that this story is very important concerning the history of the struggles that Jews have faced and overcome. Although, the joke at the beginning of this paper obviously seems to mock the story of Moses and the burning bush, the fact that the story is still remembered today and understood by the masses that it only further depicts the story’s vital significance to the Jewish religion. I see the joke as only a continued remembrance of the Prophet Moses and his struggles for Israel.

Human Nature and War Essay

The twenty first century is known to have begun just the same way that the previous century ended-within a perpetual war set- the actual words of Pinker, Hobbes and Wilson appear to hit true indeed. Therefore, the Homo Sapiens’ nature, irrespective of the perspectives of idealists like Dennis Kucinich and John Lennon, is such that the Iraq, Palestine and other few forsaken lands may not attest to the peace failure, but stands for the unavoidability of human violence. With the primarily general acceptance, in case sometimes believed reluctantly, of every individual with regard to the truth, the left antiwar has dwindled into political ambition and prowess, while Islamic, Christian together with secular Dominionists amongst individuals rush along the perspectives of the â€Å"eventual days†. However, do all these actions and perceptions perfectly describe the truth that surrounds the human condition? Could it be possible that humans are trapped, genetically and or otherwise, by the circumstances within this downward spiral into oblivion? Could individuals like Wilson, Pinker, Lorenz, Ghiglieri and Stoessinger have picked a wrong perception of humanity? It might be prudent to note that humanism is often related to the fact that individual human beings ought to understand that habits are often picked, hence they are cognitive. Just like children’s brains have been said to develop with regard to the environment within which they are raised, so is the issue regarding human violence. Every individual possesses unique capabilities, whether acquired, developed or inborn, but issues regarding wars and violence are extremely cognitive and these capabilities within individuals only perform the role of catalyzing the war-like acts. The mainstream to the international relations’ contemporary discipline still depends on key principles that were first enunciated by the Second World War era’s scholars. The comprehensive arguments of the classical realists has attained a few defining concepts within the IR and still effectively shape the general scholarly study’s orientation within the field. Wilson effectively alleged that he saw a failure in idealism to take to consideration the entire underlying natural laws, which made mankind to tend towards aggression and violence. The issue regarding human aggression and violence has been a hotly debated issue amongst international relations theorists who have been known to concentrate on the analysis based on individual levels. The human nature theorists have been said to keenly focus on how individual attributes and characteristics might interact with the distinct social environment into producing particular violent situations e. g.wars. However, besides focusing on the physical, external environment, the cognitive theorists have been forefront in providing an explanation regarding the fact that the war-like situations or individual propensities to violence are often tied to their mental processes. These cognitive theorists are often convinced that personality, intelligence, as well as learning are often the key relations to aggressive behavior. Although there might never exist scholarly agreements that pin down the key motivator to war, there certainly is one factor that might seem too weighty with regard to the same. On the other hand, motivations might present themselves within different perspectives for the individuals initiating violence than for the individuals undertaking the violence acts. For instance, within the 3rd Punic War, the leaders of Rome might have wished to create war using Carthage in order to attain an effective means of eliminating an extremely resurgent rival, although the individual soldiers might have received the motivation from a desire to obtain money. Since several individuals are involved, violence activities might acquire a life of their own, from distinct motivations’ confluence. Within the text, Why Nations Go to War, written by Stoessinger John G. , this author effectively points out the fact that every side often claims that their fight is often justified by morality. He also argues that any rationale for starting a war often relies upon the overly optimistic outcome assessment of hostilities (costs and causalities), as well as the foe’s intentions’ misperceptions. Most cognitive theorists believe in the fact that previous war environments often lead individuals into planning, as well as assessing various other ways of executing activities that result to war. Since the tactical and strategic warfare aspects are dynamic, doctrines and theories associated with warfare are always created after, during or even before each major war. Grossman, another cognitive theorist claimed that each age had its own war type, its own limiting factors, as well as its own peculiar or unique preconceptions. However, the constant factor is the employment of an extremely organized level of violence by the war activities together with the life and property destructions, which necessarily follow. This depicts the fact that these activities are often linked to a sequence of activities that might have happened previously; thus adopted. The society, therefore, adopts previous aggressiveness and creates more activities that are geared towards war. With regard to aggression, most human nature theorists, including Lorenz have a belief that the attribute is often involuntary and often originates from within. However, although Fry agrees with the fact that aggression might have been a part of the nature of human beings, perhaps even neurologically or genetically, but the way in which aggression is often played out bases itself on culture rather than just nature. Nomadic hunters and gatherers (currently or in the past), are considered egalitarian societies that are not entirely absent of all limited violence or aggression, but all its members might not practice extreme or wide scale violence within warfare. Instead, they possess several methods of managing conflicts and reconciliation techniques that minimize aggression or violence. Therefore, in this case, it should be prudent to note that there might be several examples within human nature of cooperation and peace within the human history’s bulk than of war and violence. On the contrary, social democrats together with socialists happen to maintain the Marxist ideology that every human being is infinitely good and malleable, although this notion might not effectively work either. With regard to human behavior, it is obvious that nature takes up a considerable role regulating it. Pinker might be extremely right when he argues that individuals never get into this world in the form of ‘bank slates’. Moreover, the words ‘bad’ or ‘good are so superficial and vague that they cannot do individuals any real service. On the other hand, Left-Libertarians, anarchists together with other progressives joined hands with cognitive theorists in effectively agreeing that human beings are neither bad nor good, and that they are a combination of nurture and nature, and that under particular conditions, certain human adaptations (or traits) might effectively emerge penultimate. This, therefore, signifies the fact that every violence related activity is often fueled by both the nature of human beings together with the environmental influences that surround him (Alcock, 2001). Yet the classical realist conception’s legacy of an extreme aggressive and egoistic humanity may still be reflected within the several distinct ways within contemporary international relations. An individualistic and competitive view regarding human nature still appears to underlie a variety of arguments regarding international politics, informing the ultimate, key security dilemma concept. Because humans are often viewed as lustful towards power, as well as individual desires and gains, no group or individual may be secure from others’ threat. These others might be distinct, foreign, and alien and could thus be considered as opposed. Within the state system and the contemporary international politics, business as usual depends on the difference demonization and the expulsion and rejection of the other so as to reify borders and foster national identity. Although several human nature theorists strive to bring their ideology to table regarding the inner being that exhibits activities that relate to violence, none of them compares to Pinker, a master phrase-turner, as well as a handy individual with regard to concepts (Dawkins, 1981). He makes use of the gear concept to explain the fact that a gene, which disrupts a mental capability does not need to be defective; in a similar way, genes can effectively impact on the number of complex traits within humans. He, therefore, concludes that genes have the ability to result to a variety of social disruptions. According to him, these genes might be hereditary or acquired through transfusions (1981). Pinker effectively concentrates on three distinct ideological myths or dogma, which inform all academic theories regarding the human nature. First the notion of the blank slate that addresses the fact that the environment is the key impact to human nature (e. g. violence activities); often, lip service is accorded to innate structure, although after that, anything could be extremely possible to the unlimited ability of human brain to learn as long as the right environment is accorded. Second is the ghost within the machine that explains that the mind, soul and psyche are distinct from brain, body and matter (Dawkins, 1981). Often, this always attains a reference of dualism; it effectively sets up an extreme distinction between psychology-neurology, mind-brain, man-animal etc. This could be said to be among the considerable disasters of the western thought, and often gets into the way of human happiness. The third notion addresses the idea of romantics or savage, which claims that natural things are often good and unblemished as long as they are not tainted by the society. With this regard, Pinker explains that every individual human is responsible for his activities without any particular influence from the environment (Carl, 1991). It could then be argued after reading Fry’s piece that there could be extremely something distinct within nomadic hunters and gatherers than within states or chiefdoms that might lead individuals to ever increasing warfare and violence. Cognitive theories maintain that all human attributes and behavior including violent attributes are often learned via interaction with the entire social environment. The theorists assert that individuals are never born with any violent dispositions. Rather, they often acquire information and learn to act and think violently from their daily experiences. Proponents to the behaviorist tradition insist that these experiences might incorporate the observations made to friends and families being rewarded for their absolute violent tendencies, or even making observations regarding the media glorification of violence. For instance studies about family life exhibit the fact that aggressive children always reflect the behaviors or attributes of their parents. Several studies have also revealed that individuals who live within violent prone communities often learn to reflect the aggressive nature of their neighbors. Cognitive theorists have effectively argued that the following factors aid in yielding violent behaviors and wars: 1. A stressful stimulus or event- like a challenge, assault or threat. 2. Aggressive techniques or skills acquired through continuously observing others’ behavioral tendencies. 3. The belief that violence or aggression may be socially rewarded (for example by earning other individuals’ praise, providing material goods, enhancing self esteem or reducing frustration). 4. An extreme value system, which condones violent and aggressive acts in particular social contexts. Earlier, empirical tests to these four principles were perceived as promising (Bartol, 2002). Due to this, behavioral theory contributed directly to the effective development and integration of social learning, deviance theories, among the most influential and significant of all known criminological theories may be subject to detailed discussions within the report titled: Social Learning and Violence. Although social Darwinism might have declined within popular favor as a result of the World Wars’ experience, the 20th century might not have seen the eventual attempts to elaborate human behavior with regard to evolved genetic predispositions. The sociobiology founder, Edward Wilson, defined this as a systematic biological basis’ study of every social behavior. This evolutionary theory branch inspired a variety of scholars of the IR to revisit arguments that are classical and realists with regard to human nature, despite Waltz’s individual concerns together with investigating their confidence within evolutionary science. These scholars have been seeking to combine the rational choice theory’s elements with revolutionary arguments in a bid to provide proof of the claims that might have been previously considered insignificant and unknowable. This entire sentiment is effectively addressed within perhaps the boldest way by Thayer Bradley in an article International Security published in 2000.

Book Review on Poor Economics

BOOK REVIEW POOR ECONOMICS: A RADICAL RETHINKING OF THE WAY TO FIGHT GLOBAL POVERTY By: Abhijit V Banerjee & Esther Duflo POOR ECONOMICS argues that so much of anti-poverty policy has failed over the years because of an inadequate understanding of poverty. The battle against poverty can be won, but it will take patience, careful thinking and a willingness to learn from evidence. Banerjee and Duflo are practical visionaries whose meticulous workoffers transformative potential for poor people anywhere, and is a vital guide to policy makers, philanthropists, activists and anyone else who cares about building a world without poverty.CHAPTER 1: THINK AGAIN, AGAIN Poverty and development can sometimes feel like overwhelming issues – the scale is daunting, the problems grand. Ideology drives a lot of policies, and even the most well-intentioned ideas can get bogged down by ignorance of ground-level realities and inertia at the level of the implementer. In fact, we call these the â₠¬Å"three I’s† – ideology, ignorance, inertia – the three main reasons policies may not work and aid is not always effective.But there’s no reason to lose hope. Incremental, real change can be made. Sometimes the change seems small, but by identifying real world success stories, facing up to real world failures, and understanding why the poor make the choices they make, we can find the right levers to push to free the poor of the hidden traps that keep them behind. CHAPTER 2: A BILLION HUNGRY PEOPLE? Jeffrey Sachs, an advisor to the United Nations and director of Columbia University's Earth Institute, is one such expert.In books and countless speeches and television appearances, he has argued that poor countries are poor because they are hot, infertile, malaria-infested, and often landlocked; these factors, however, make it hard for them to be productive without an initial large investment to help them deal with such endemic problems. But they cannot pay for the investments precisely because they are poor — they are in what economists call a â€Å"poverty trap. † Until something is done about these problems, neither free markets nor democracy will do very much for them.The basic idea of a nutrition-based poverty trap is that there exists a critical level of nutrition, above or below which dynamic forces push people either further down into poverty and hunger or further up into better-paying jobs and higher-calorie diets. These virtuous or vicious cycles can also last over generations: early childhood under-nutrition can have long-term effects on adult success. Maternal health impacts in  utero  development. And it’s not just quantity of food – quality counts, too. Micronutrients like iodine and iron can have direct impacts on health and economic outcomes.But if nutrition is so important, why don’t people spend every available extra cent on more calories? From the look of our eighteen-count ry dataset, people spent their money on food†¦ and festivals, funerals, weddings, televisions, DVD players, medical emergencies, alcohol, tobacco and, well, better-tasting food. CHAPTER 3: Low-Hanging Fruit for Better (Global) Health? Every year, nine million children under five die from preventable diseases such as diarrhea and malaria. Often, the treatments for these diseases are cheap, safe, and readily available.So why don't people pick these ‘low-hanging fruit'? Why don’t mothers vaccinate their children? Why don’t families use bednets, or buy chlorinated water? And why do they spend such large amounts of money on ineffective cure instead? There are a number of possible explanations. These can include unreliable health service delivery, price sensitivity, a lack of information or trust, time-inconsistent behavior and the simple fact that the poor may not be able to tackle big, chronic illnesses. None of these reasons explains everything in isolation.But understanding what stops the immediate spread of our ‘low-hanging fruit’ – bednets, de-worming medication, vaccines, chlorinated water – is an important step in improving global health, and may finally help to eliminate health-based poverty traps. CHAPTER 4: TOP OF THE CLASS Over the past few decades, children have flocked into the schools, but schools seem to have delivered very little: teachers and students are often absent, and learning levels are very low. Why is this happening? Is it a supply issue, where the government needs to provide children with better schools, better textbooks, better teachers and better facilities?Or is it demand, where parents would lobby for quality education if and only if there were real benefits? There seems to be a problem with both. For example, parents expect both too much and too little from the schools: government jobs for those who graduate from secondary school, and nothing for the rest. Teachers seem focused on te aching small elite, and undervalue the regular students. These expectations affect behavior and generate real world waste. But the good news is that these expectations and these real world outcomes can be changed CHAPTER 5: Pak Sudarno's Big FamilyMost policy makers consider population policy to be a central part of any development program. And yet, unexpectedly, it seems that access to contraception may not be the determining factor in the poor's fertility decisions. So how can policy makers influence population? Instead of contraception, other aspects like social norms, family dynamics, and above all, economic considerations, seem to play a key role, not only in how many children people choose to have, but how they will treat them. Discrimination against women and girls remain a central fact of the life for many poor families.Going inside the â€Å"black box† of familial decision-making – that is, understanding how and why decisions are made the way they are – is essential to predicting the real impact of any social policy aimed at influencing population. CHAPTER 6: BAREFOOT HEDGEFUND MANAGERS The poor face a huge amount of risk – a friend of ours from the world of high finance once noted that they're like hedge fund managers. These risks can come from health shocks – like an accident – or agricultural shocks – like a drought – or any other number of unexpected crises.Often, the poor just don't have the means to weather these shocks, and so they get pushed into poverty traps. The steps they take to protect themselves form these risks are insufficient and often costly: they choose less profitable and less risky crop, they spread themselves too thin across a great number of activities; they exchange favors with neighbors. Yet all this doesn't always even cover large shocks. CHAPTER 7: MICROFINANCE The fact that banks are often unwilling to lend to the poor, coupled with the extremely high interest rates m oneylenders charge, was a call to action for the founders of microfinance.Enforcing credit contracts involves collecting extensive information about the borrower to ensure repayment. The high cost of gathering this information makes neighborhood moneylenders the easiest source of credit. Microfinance institutions rely on their ability to keep a close check on the customer, in part by involving other borrowers who happen to know the customer: This was a recipe for enormous success, there are more than 200 million microfinance borrowers today. Many MFIs were unwilling to evaluate whether their lending programs were helping the poor.The MFIs were financially sustainable and borrowers kept coming back, which the MFIs saw as proof enough. When an Indian MFI, Spandana, was rigorously evaluated, there was clear evidence that microfinance was working. People in Spandana neighborhoods were more likely to have started a business and made large purchases. However, there were no detectable impa cts on women's empowerment, spending on education or health, or in the probability that kids would be enrolled in private schools. One of the limits of microfinance is its inflexible structure and focus on â€Å"zero default. It may not be an effective borrowing channel for entrepreneurs who are willing to take risks and will go on to set up a large business. More established businesses do not find it that much easier to get credit. In particular, they run the risk of being too large for the traditional moneylenders and microfinance agencies, but too small for the banks. We need to see the equivalent of the microfinance revolution for small and medium firms; figured out how to do it profitably on a large scale is the next big challenge for finance in developing countries. CHAPTER 8: SAVING BRICK BY BRICKJust as with lending, banks have not found a good way to adapt their services to the poor. The administrative costs associated with managing small accounts are too high. Instead, th e poor find unusual and ingenious ways to save. They buying durable goods like jewelry or new bricks for their house. Many form savings â€Å"clubs† such as the popular rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) in Africa. However, the fact that the poor have to adopt complicated and costly alternative strategies to save means that saving is harder than if they had a bank account: access to a saving accounts increases profits and consumption.With new technology and innovations like M-PESA in Kenya which allows cell phone users to send money with their phone, microsavings might become the next microfinance revolution. However, not all barriers to savings are externally imposed. The poor, like anyone else, easily give in to the temptation to spend money in the present rather than save it for the future. They have difficulty, for example, saving enough over a short season to buy fertilizer; but a program to help them buy it early increased fertilizer use. The poor may be more subject to temptations than the rich because the items they dream of may be further from their reach.Poor people who feel that they have opportunities have strong reasons to cut down on â€Å"frivolous† spending and invest in the future. Those who feel that they have nothing to lose, in contrast, save less: hope matters! CHAPTER 9: RELUCTANT ENTREPRENEURS Many expect that the poor will find successful business opportunities. They haven't been given a chance, so their ideas are fresher: MFIs have many examples of successful clients, like a garbage collector turned recycling empress! The sheer number of business owners among the poor is impressive. When tiny grants were made to small businesses in Sri Lanka, their profits increased rapidly.However, while many of the poor operate businesses, most of these businesses are tiny. The businesses of the poor tend to have few if any employees and very limited assets. The businesses run by the poor are also generally unprofitable, which may well explain why giving them a loan to start a new business does not lead to a drastic improvement in their welfare. Many businesses suffer from the â€Å"empty shelf† problem: a space a created for a shop, but no inventory fills the shelves. Even a small investment in more inventory will have large marginal returns, but once the shelves are full, the business has no further scope to grow.Despite initial large returns to small investments, many small businesses hit at point at which a substantial capital investment is needed in order to continue growing. However, few people are willing to give such large loans to the poor. Because of this trap, the poor may not invest as much (both money but also emotions and intellectual energy) into their businesses because they know that their business will always remain too small to make real money. Often, the enterprises of the poor seem more a way to buy a job when more conventional employment opportunities are not available t han a reflection of a particular entrepreneurial urge.One of the most common dreams of the poor is that their children become government workers – a stable, though not always an exciting job. A sense of stability may be necessary for people to be able to take the long view. People who don’t envision substantial improvements to their future quality of life may stop trying and end up staying where they are. Creating good jobs could go a long way in increasing the stability of the lives of the poor, which will, in turn give the poor the opportunity and the urge to invest in their children and save more.There are more than a billion people who survive off of the earnings of their own farm or business. We must be impressed by their resilience. But these small businesses will probably not pave the way for a massive exit from poverty. CHAPTER 10: POLICIES, POLITICS Even the most well-intended and well-thought-out policies may not have an impact if they are not implemented pro perly. Corruption, or the simple dereliction of duty, creates massive inefficiencies. Many people believe that until political institutions are fixed, countries cannot really develop. There may be no natural process to completely eliminate bad institutions.Institutional change from the outside is probably an illusion. But it is not clear that things will eventually fix themselves. However, fighting corruption appears to be possible to some extent even without fixing the larger institutions. Relatively straightforward interventions, such as threatening audits or publicizing corruption results have shown impressive success. Often, small changes make important differences. In Brazil, switching to a pictorial ballot enfranchised a large number of poor and less educated adults. The politicians they elected were more likely to target their policies to the poor.In China, even imperfect elections led to policies that were more favorable to the poor. In India, when quotas for women on villag e councils in India were enacted, women leaders invested in public goods preferred by women. Policies are not completely determined by politics. Good policies (sometimes) happen in bad political environments. For example, Suharto built tens of thousands of schools in Indonesia. And bad policies happen in good environments, because what the government is trying to do is hard: generally, the government tries to convince people to do something they would not like to do, like wearing a helmet on a motorcycle!The opportunities for corruption are rife. Bad policies are often a product of the three I's: ideology, ignorance, inertia. For example, nurses in India, whose job description is so overwhelming that they have decided that they cannot possibly do it, and instead do nothing. Careful understanding of constraints can lead to policies and institutions that are better designed, and less likely to be perverted by corruption. Changes will be incremental, but they will sustain and build on themselves, and perhaps even improve the political process.